Pope Innocent IV

In the history of the Catholic Church one pontiff who, inadvertently, had a major impact on Monaco was Pope Innocent IV. Coincidentally enough he was a native of Genoa, born there as Sinibaldo Fieschi in 1195. He was educated in Parma and Bologna until being called to Rome to serve in the Curia in 1226. The Church had enjoyed a succession of strong popes, particularly Pope Innocent III during whose reign the Church reached its peak of political power in Europe. Lately, however, conflicts had arisen with the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (quite famous and formidable in his own right he was known as the ‘Wonder of the World’). After a very long and contentious conclave Cardinal Fieschi was elected, a decision he accepted with great reluctance. He had been on friendly terms with the Emperor but as pope he could have no favorites and Frederick II expected this and it surely turned heads when he took as his name Innocent IV.

Problems arose almost immediately over imperial control of the Church (such as in the appointment of bishops) and the earlier seizure of northern Italy from the papacy by the Emperor. Italians were roused to anger against the German monarch and open conflict seemed inevitable. In 1244 the Pope left Rome (where German agents made things dangerous for him) and moved to Genoa and from there he later went in disguise to France where he was warmly received in Lyons. Safe to act freely he summoned a council aimed at reminding the Emperor that his power had limits. On July 17, 1245 the Pope and assembled bishops formally excommunicated Frederick II and absolved his subjects of all allegiance to him. All across Europe there were preparations for war but, perhaps fortunately for the Pope, Frederick II died only five years later which ended the crisis for the moment and Innocent IV returned to Rome.

The Pope had numerous political as well as religious matters to deal with and, like the previous pontiff of his name, maintained that as the Pope was the Vicar of Christ he had final authority over all kings and princes. He intervened in Portugal, Austria but could be a strong ally to monarchs as well as an adversary, taking the side of King Henry III of England even when the nobles and bishops of the country were opposed to him. He even sent a mission to the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, Guyuk Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan. He asked the Mongol Emperor to cease his attacks on Christian countries and advised him to become a Catholic. Guyuk kept his own religion and sent a message back demanding that the Pope and all the monarchs of Europe submit to the rule of the Great Khan. That submission was not forthcoming.
In his latter days Pope Innocent IV was again occupied by problems with the Holy Roman Empire, specifically the offspring of Frederick II who were still struggling for domination of Italy. He died in 1254 in Naples but the battle lines had already been drawn and across Italy, particularly northern Italy, factions emerged which supported the Pope (the Guelphs) and the Emperor (the Ghibellines). One of the places where this rivalry was fiercest was in the Pope’s native Genoa where both sides made war against each other in true vendetta fashion. The result was a Ghibelline victory and the expulsion of the Guelf families, one of which was the House of Grimaldi. Driven from their home they looked to take their revenge and seek their fortunes elsewhere and the target they had in mind was the Ghibelline fortress on the Rock known as Monaco.

So, if you have ever wondered why Pope Innocent IV was featured on a Monegasque postage stamp...now you know.

Grimaldi Roots: The Guelphs and Ghibellines

The clash that brought about the Grimaldi seizure of Monaco was the longstanding feud in the Italian states between the Guelphs and Ghibellines. This feud lasted throughout most of the Middle Ages and achieved epic proportions. Even the feud between the fictitious families of Romeo and Juliette originated in the clash between the Guelph and Ghibelline factions. As readers of this blog probably know the Grimaldi family originated in the Italian city-state of Genoa and their involvement in the feud came with the clash between the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Pope Innocent IV. Genoa split into Guelph and Ghibelline factions with the Guelphs supporting the Pope and the Ghibellines supporting the Emperor. The Grimaldis and the Fieschis were Guelphs but the Ghibellines were victorious and drove them out of Genoa.

It all came down to the doctrine that two powers govern the world; the temporal and the spiritual which Innocent III compared to the sun and the moon. The height of temporal power in old Christendom was the Holy Roman Emperor while the highest spiritual authority was the Supreme Pontiff. Both were to work in concert but it was, perhaps, inevitable that they would clash over who was finally supreme of the two. The Popes claimed that, as it was they who were given their authority by Christ himself (in the form of the keys to St Peter) and that Christian teaching stressed that the spirit was greater than the flesh and that it was they who crowned and anointed the emperor the popes were therefore superior. The Emperor, however, viewed himself as the viceroy of God on earth and thought he should confirm papal elections and appoint bishops himself. Did not the authority of the Emperor of Rome predate the authority of the Pope?

Naturally, the details that started the split were soon forgotten in favor of more practical rivalries. In large part the nobility supported the Emperor as it was he who granted them their titles and in whose name they finally exercised authority. The merchants and freemen of the Italian city-state republics tended to favor the Pope as he was content to let them govern themselves and did not interfere with their business. The Pope was also one of their own, someone they felt closer to than a distant German monarch. The names for the factions also come from Germany, originating in the rivalry between the House of Welf (Guelph) who were the Dukes of Bavaria and the Imperial House of Hohenstaufen (originally Dukes of Swabia) whose ancestral castle was Waiblingen (Ghibelline) in Franconia.

When the Grimaldis first seized the Rock at Monaco it was from a Ghibelline garrison for as Genoa was seized by one side or the other it was usual that the losing party was driven into exile. For aid the Grimaldis turned to Charles of Anjou, comte de Provence, whom they had served in the past and in appreciation he granted them the lands of Ventimiglia, Menton and Roquebrune to make up for their losses in Genoa. They lost when Charles of Anjou had to have the help of Genoa in a conflict with Sicily and as soon as his protection was withdrawn the Genoese pounced and recaptured Monaco. After a period of time the Guelph faction won and the Grimaldis took back Monaco but ten years later the Ghibellines were back. Robert of Anjou finally intervened to end the feud and it was through his mediation that Monaco was permanently returned to the House of Grimaldi and placed under the rule of Lord Charles Grimaldi, son of Rainier I.